Notes

• reporting scientific results 
• peer reviewed academic press 
• scientific magazines for interested readership: not professionals but have background knowledge 
• general interest magazines 
• general interesdt magazine newspapers 
• Hamer: the hypothetical gene that may influence ale sexual orientation has not yet been isolated 
• the quantitative tole xq28 plays...Is yet to be determined 
• Time: born gay 
• components of a scientific episode 
• Real world 
• Model 
• should: explain what is unexplained 
• take into account our other well established knowledge 
• Theoretical explanatory model 
• darwin's explanatory model 
• species evolve: they change from simpler to mor complex structures 
• soecues with similar structures are related and likely have a common ancestor 
• it is the enviorment that determines which structures or organisms are succesful 
• data 
• predictions 
• descriptions of what further observations would show if the theory is accurate 
• science is the attempt to explain real world phenomena 
• science is a culturally embeded real world phenomena 
• components of a scientifc episode 
• if the data agreew with the predictions the theory is confirmed 
• if the data disagrees with the theory it is falsified 
• Scientific theories can never be proven to be true but can be not false 
• True 
• logical truth 2+2=4 p and not p can't exist at the same time 
• deductive reasoning 
• inductive reasoning 
• All men are mortal
• socrates is a man 
• therfore socrates is mortal 
• empirical truth - can concieve of there falshood as their truth 
• Yali's question 
• Why is it you white people have so much cargo ( material possessions) and brought it with you to new guinea while we black people have so little cargo of our own 
• Diamond re conception: why is it wealth and power got distributed as it did instead of some other way 
• By 1500 ad 
• Europe, Asia and North Africa are the sites of metal equipped state- some on the verge if industrialized
• Sub Saharan Africa is divided in small states or chief domes with iron tools 
• Aztecs and Incas rule over empires in the America's with stone tools 
• Everybody else in the Americas, subsaharan Africa, Australians and pacific islanders live on small agricultural communities or as hunter gatherers 
• 11000 BCE 
• Everyone was hunter gatherers  
• while Australians, pacific islanders and many American remains as such 
• Eurasia, sub Saharan Africa and parts of the America's developed agriculture, herding, met allergy and complex political organization 
• Writing developed in Eurasia and one location in the America's 
• All of these occured first in Eurasia 
• Biological exploration 
• differential outcomes result from intrinsic or innate differences existing between objectively definable groups of people 
• humans and their place in nature 
• Carl Linneas 1707-77- the father of modern taxonomy ( the science of classification) mongst creation there are certain shared characteristics not shared by others. The fore there are finer groupings with shared characteristics not shared with every delegated group within that group there are finer groupings 
• A nested 2 dimensional Hierarchy 
• Class: mammals are different than reptiles or birds 
• within mammals there are primates which are different than carnivores, or rodents,
• Order: Primates have thumbs and fingernails, and the possibility of being bipedal, skull and jaw features, teeth structure 
• Families: homonadae ( great apes) - rotatable shoulder, appendix, monkeys-tails, 
• Genus: homo, pan gorilla, pongo 
• Species: homosapiens 
• Every species exists on the same level of horizontal classification 
• Lamarck 1744-1829
• Species Evolve 
• That change involves the improvement. A movement of progress "up" the great chain of being 
• It is the environment that causes the impotence or causes the change 
• Darwin 1809-82 
• Great chain of being- all species relate to each other along a single dimension a line. The result of divine creation 
• Implications- creation is hierarchical 
• All species that could exist do exist 
• divine creation 
• Darwin- species evolve: that change is manifest as descent with modification via the mechanism of natural selection ( by which certain characteristics) 
• Natural selection- Darwins conception that nature itself, via the environment selects certain characteristics to better than average chance of surviving and or reproducing 
• that change is divergent not linear- things don't get better they get different 
• Evolutionary change based on the mechanism of mechanisms is a major among modern humans and is a significant change of the observed creation among human populations 
• the production an redistribution of variation 
• mutation : a change in a genetic sequence. Mutations include changes as small as the substitution of a single DNA building block, or nucleotide base, with another nucleotide base. Meanwhile, larger mutations can affect many genes on a chromosome.
• gene flow :the transfer of genetic variation from one population to another. If the rate of gene flow is high enough, then two populations are considered to have equivalent genetic diversity and therefore effectively be a single population.
• genetic output: a gene that is expressed in a rhythmic pattern or in periodic cycles. Oscillating genes are usually circadian and can be identified by periodic changes in the state of an organism. ... Oscillating genes include both core clock component genes and output genes.
• natural selection 
• adaptive advantage 
• micro evolutionary mechanisms- small scale evolutionary changes requiring a few generation and therefore view-able in living populations macro evolutionary ,mechanisms-large scale evolutionary change 
• speciation ( diversion of 2 species) usually requiring hundreds of generations- and therby only visible in the fossil record 
• tiktaalik 
• population genetics 
• the change in the distribution frequencies of alleles within a population 
• gene- a functional piece of DNA 
• Allele: alternate forms of a gene at a given genetic point 
• human genome: a complete strand of human DNA 
• Genotype: an individuals genetic constitution 
• Phenotype-the individuals observable or measurable characteristics 
• population: a group of potentially interbreeding individuals 
• Mutations: a chang in DNA ( on the small scale of a single base on the larger chromosomal scale) 
• Usually an errors. The replication, The parent organisms DNA 
• " a slightly unfaithful copy of the parent DNA"
• The only way an entirely new genetic organism arises 
• Estimate to occur in humans at 1 in 30 million base pairs 
• 100 to 200 different from the parent genomes 
• The odds that any particular mutation will be evolutionary or have an effect on the organism or be passed on are slim 
• In order to be evolutionary a mutation would have to occur on a gene and create and allele 
• Most of our genome appears not to be functional as genes 
• ( junk DNA)- 90-95% of DNA
• It would have to occur on a gamete that participates in fertilization 
• If bot conditions are met it still the case that such a mutation is disastrous 
• Evolution : the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations and relies on the process of natural selection.
• gene : a unit of heredity which is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring.
• allele: one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome.
• genotype : the genetic constitution of an individual organism.
• phenotype : e set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.
• gene pool : the stock of different genes in an interbreeding population.
• evolutionary mechanics : refers to the changes in allele frequencies within a single population.
• mutation :  A Mutation occurs when a DNA gene is damaged or changed in such a way as to alter the genetic message carried by that gene. A Mutagen is an agent of substance that can bring about a permanent alteration to the physical composition of a DNA gene such that the genetic message is changed.
• gene flow- the movement of DNA
• The movement of alleles between populations-migration, intermarriage...
• gene drift- random non adaptive changes to a gene pool 
• The tendency of populations to deviate from mathematical expectations 
• If no new alleles arise ( no mutation) an if no outside alleles are introduced ( no gene flow and if all reproduce at the same rate then, I could predict the gene pools of subsequent generations
• Inverse to population size eq: founder effect 
• a genetic bottleneck 
• where alleles come to be over representative in random non adaptive ways in subsequent generations 
• natural selection: he process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring. The theory of its action was first fully expounded by Charles Darwin and is now believed to be the main process that brings about evolution.
• sickle cell 
• heterozygous: different copies of alleles at a genetic locus 
• homozygous: 2 copies of the same allele at a genetic locus 
• Mandelian inheritance 
• Mendel 1822-84 
• Tall pea plant and small pea plants made tall pea plants their offspring made short and tall pea plants 
• DNA- deoxiribose nucleic 
• Adenine 
• Guanine 
• Thymine 
• Cytosyne 
• Codes for protein production 
• 3.2 billion base pairs 
• human genome 
• chromosomes 
• 23 pairs 
• dominant- a copy results in a phenotypic expression 
• recessive- will only be expressed absent the dominant characteristic 
• incomplete dominance- allows for the expression the other allele 
• ( simple) mendelian inheritance 
• homozygous: having two identical alleles of a particular gene or genes.
• heterozygous : having two different alleles of a particular gene or genes.
• gene allele:  a variant form of a gene. Some genes have a variety of different forms, which are located at the same position, or genetic locus, on a chromosome. Humans are called diploid organisms because they have two alleles at each genetic locus, with one allele inherited from each parent. 
• DNA :deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating material which is present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information.
• Dominant : An allele or a gene that is expressed in an organism's phenotype, masking the effect of the recessive allele or gene when present.
• Recessive : a gene that can be masked by a dominant gene. ... You might remember the word recessive from biology, where it most often appears. Its opposite is dominant and is always living in its shadow. A recessive allele has to team up with another recessive allele in order to show up.
• Incomplete Dominance:  a form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a specific trait is not completely expressed over its paired allele. This results in a third phenotype in which the expressed physical trait is a combination of the phenotypes of both alleles
• Eukaryote: any cell or organism that possesses a clearly defined nucleus. The eukaryotic cell has a nuclear membrane that surrounds the nucleus, in which the well-defined chromosomes (bodies containing the hereditary material) are located.
• Prokaryote:a microscopic single-celled organism that has neither a distinct nucleus with a membrane nor other specialized organelles. Prokaryotes include the bacteria and cyanobacteria.
• Sickle cell: incompletely dominant, a substitution mutation that occured on chromosome 11 
• Mutation: a change in DNA 
• Huntington's disease: a dominant allele  base pair sequence reported CAG 9-27 times relating from an addition mutation on chromosome 4
• If reported 40+ times- Huntinton's results 
• Cystic Fibrosis: a deletion mutation on chromosome 7 
• A recessive allele... heterozygous are carriers 
• Pathology problem 
• Linae 
• Europheus: white serious strong  
• :Asiatus: greedy hottiness, desirous 
• Amerious: stubborn, red 
• Afer
• Monstrous: made up 
• seeing cultural variation as biological seeing biological variation theoretical the views of cultural influence 
• BUmbach: 1756-1840 
• Galton: 1822-1911
• Spencer: 1820-1903
• Genus Homo: species: sapien 
• 1795:bloombach 
• on the natural variations in humankind 
• Caucasian 
• Mongolian 
• Malay 
• American Ethopian 
• Racial taxonomy 
• There are fundamental biologically significant distinct between groups if people 
• the groupings are racial in composition 
• Eugenics 
• Good/ Happy birth 
• " good characteristics allow society to advance 
• Artificial selection 
• Can we improve humans 
• Assumptions 
• The traits in question has to be natural or biological and heritable 
• some humans are better than others 
• positive eugenics 
• Improve the species by emphasizing the spread of those traits seen as beneficial
• Bad/harmful characteristics 
• laziness 
• mental illness 
• physical illness 
• stupidity 
• low self-esteem 
• negative eugenics 
• improve the species by preventing the spread of those characteristics seen as harmful characteristics 
• Eugenics 
• positive 
• Negative: improve the species by preventing the spread of these traits seen as dysgenic 
• Galton 
• Spencer 
• Eugenics record office (1910) 
• Charles davenport 
• Harry Laughlin 
• Fablemindedness- inherited as a " mendelian recessive" 
• made to subsume mental deficit that can be phenotypic ally expressed intellectually, behaviorally or socially 
• eq:intellectual disability, insanity, mental illness 
• behavioral: eq-criminal tendency
• alcoholism and drug addiction 
• Social: poverty, illegitimacy, prostitution
• They live in prisons, charitable hospitals, asylums, inner city ghettos: those who are feeble minded live here
• African Americans, native Americans and people of color generally, recent immigrants, 
• outside the country 
• Immigration restriction 
• inside the country 
• laws against interracial marriage 
• involuntary sterilization 
• 1870- forced a series of recessions occurs about 1 a decade 
• a shift from rural agrarian economy toward an industrial economy 
• an explosion in population centers- without adequate housing 
• The exploitation of error by capital ( Robber Barron capitalism) 
• Rise of radicalism and socialism in Europe and marxism and trade unionism in the US 
• A huge influx of immigrants 
• 1870-150k a year 
• 1890- 500k a year 
• 1904- 1.7 million a year 
• don't want anymore southern and Eastern Europeans because of eugenics 
• Social darwinism 
• The application of Darwinism principles to human social constructs 
• e.q. social outcome ( economic inequities) result from the laws of biology and not social/historical contingency 
• This is an argument against social welfare   
• 1911 eugenics records office 
• 1882-immigration act-occurred from entry:
•  Anyone who could not care for him/herself w/ one comings public charge 
• 1882 Chinese exclusion act 
• 1920- Johnson Act 
• Moron IQ: below 70 
• Imbecile IQ: below 65 
• Idiot IQ: below 60 
• 1924 immigration act 
• The rising tide of intellectually/morally inferior immigrants from southern Europe 
• Antimiscegnations: no interracial marriages 
• Virginia racial integrity act: stayed a law till 1967 
• 1907 in Connecticut: sterilization of unfit 
• 1915: model eugenics sterilization statue 
• Asylums and prisos: invoke tart sterilization 
• 1927; buck v. bell 
• Buck : Virginia colony for the feeble minded and epilectic 
• 1942: skinner v Oklahoma 
• Skinner was not sterilized 
• 1933: Nazi: involuntary sterilized 300-500k
• criteria for "biological race"
• there must be discrete. isolate categories 
• there must be significant homogeneity within groups 
•   there should be concordance of traits 
• there aren't distinct boundries for traits ... including all racial traits 
• racialized traits - these traits seen as indicators of racial membership 
• there are no natural gaps indicating where one group and another begins 
• some races share similar prototypes 
• many people don't fit common racial categories 
• populations have likely always mixed/intermarried- ch 6 pg 114 this is not a recent phenomena (bleeding isulates vs gene flow)
• When traits are chosen defining membership ? 
• is there homogeneity within groups 
• phenotype: individuals with the same categories often vary widely 
• even for realized traits , there is a wide spectrum of variation within race ex: skintone 
• attempts to identify racial types by phenotypes " racial colors"  facial characteristics 
• ex: skull measurements ( biacto/ dolio/ mesocephal) 
• subsuming all of an individuals characteristics to a single one racial group membership 
• population vs race - the relevant unit of biological/ physical anthro analysis ?
• racial vs racist studies
• racial study:  the presumed  inferiority of entire groups of people 
• polytypism : ( polytipic) quantifying and studying the differences that exist between groups 
• black-white-asian 
• polymorphism ( polymorphic)  idnetifying and studying the differences that exist between individuals within groups  
• black-white-asian arbitrariness and subjectivity 
• polytypism is another way to explain racial taxonomy 
• every race is polytypic , but not every polytipic is necessarily racist 
• all scots are frugal 
• your a scot 
• you are frugal 
• asians are more intellegent than caucasians 
• your an asian descent
• your asian 
• inheriting your intellegent ( a racist inference) 
• biological race 
• in order for race to be deep biollogically -( at least) 3 criteria would have to be met 
• arbitrariness and subjectivity in defining traits: traits such as eye color, stature or blood group are easily, objectively, definable. But  of course the eugenics were most interested in mental and behavioral traits and those they saw as resulting in undesirable social outcomes e.g. intellegence feeblemindedness, mental illness, alcholism and criminality 
• not only are these traits highly complex they are also to varying degrees subjectively defined 
• what is an undesirable trait how it to be defined 
• how do we define what is a serious enough genetic defect such that it shouldn't be phenotypically expressed 
• who gets to determine such things 
• reification is the tendency to see complex traits -- especially behaviors as a single entity 
• Stemming from a single cause ( which then could be potentially " bred out") and which is amenable to a single description 
• but of course ( and as marks notes) just because you can gives single name to something doesn't meam is a singular entity 
• e.g. feenlemindedness.... 
• intellegence--- the eugenics and the authors of the bell curve, Ruston 
• however some psychologists ( and others) have critiqued the strict association of a concept as potentially complex as intellegence with the ability to perform well on standardized tests 
• sereo burg " for whom the bell curve tolls" intellegence is best understood as abilities that are culturally valued which produce culturally valued products 
• gould-" curveball" the idea of intellegence is concived of as multifarious. Rather than a single thing, intellegence... Rather there are numerous abilities/capabilities, intellegences 
• gould here references howard gardner theory of multiple intellegences ( 1983) 
• Gardner theory of multiple intellegences identifies different " types"  of intellegence-- 
• mathematical-logical, verbal linguistic visual-spatial, interpersonal,kinesthetic-bodily musical etc. some of which may be amenable to stanardized test, others not... Some may be complementary, other antagonistic...
• Sternberg's riachic thory ( not in our article) 
• 1.) componential ( analytical- the ability to analyze, critique, contrast, evaluate 
• 2- creative ( experiential- the ability to invent, discover, use existing knowledge in novel situations 
• 3)practical ( contextual - the ability to apply, use put into practice, to adapt to meet needs) 
• Intellegence- an innate property of the brain- capable of being passed from parent to offspring- amenable to description by I.Q.
• Downs syndrome 
• Ectrodactyly 
• Hereditarianism- is seeing biological causation to the literal exclusion of any other possibility 
• Eugenicsts sought genetic explanations 
• obviously family members share genes, but they share far more that can greatly influence their physical intellectual and emotional traits 
• e.g. Enviorments, parental influence ( or lack thereof), peer groups, educational and occupational opportunity, customs, diets etc. 
• e.g. feeblemindedness ( as a shorthand for intellectual defect) criminality, etc. 
• and the failure to recognize social/ enviormentl influence and depend on hereditarily
• ism leads to what marks labels a primative theory of history and cultural change- ( social/historical progress) 
• this of course applies to positive eugenics as much as to negative eugenics ( and social darwinists, etc.)... If we see excellence or superiority as exclusively being biological ( that is independent of cultural constructs) we developed a mistaken view of its occurrence.As marks notes the emphasis on its exclusively biological nature leads eugenicists to see the limiting factor of the occurence of excellence as that there aren't enough humans who embody such traits, when it might be rather the accessibility of resources to the pool of talented people who might be able to benefit for them ( i.e. it is the accident of the confluence of history , environment, culture, biology, etc. that results in " excellence") 
• a related error to conflate performance and ability 
• racial vs racist studies 
• polytheism-polytypic- identifying the differences that exist between groups 
• polymorphism-polymorphic: identifying/studying the differences that exist between individuals within groups 
• every racist study is polytipic but not every polytipic study is racist
• The pressured inferiority of entire groups of people   
• sub summing all of an individual's characteristics to a single one racial group membership 
• an empirical universal generalization 
• heritability- the proportion of variation between individuals within a population attributable to genetic vs non-genetic factors...0-1
• Even if a trait is heritable to some degree, environment can be efficacious ( e.g. height in 'corn plants')
• The technical definition of " heritability" goods description of height 
• PKU ( a heritable factor of, but its a phenotypic expression is dependent on environment)
• brain too developmentally 'plastic'( although mediated by genetic activity, enviorment is efficacious in the developing brain.) 
• homogeneity?... genotype 
• Genotype: there is aparently more gentic variation( overall) within traditionally conceived racial groups than between them. ( polymorphic vs polytipic variation ...) 
• e.g. ABO blood typing: base on distrubutions:up
• Senegalese, Vietnamese, New Guineans, Germans form a "group", as do Chinese and pols... 
• If we add the MN locus--- some anomalies are removed-- Germans/New Guineans are distinguished, but others arise: Japanese/ Estonians.. Add Rh?...etc. 
• ... and of course, if we keep adding loci we could successfully distinguished populations, families, even individuals...But what does that tell us about the basic "types of humankind? ( pg 130-132
• genetic homogenity :composition from like parts, elements, or characteristics; state or quality of being homogeneous.
• holding for our general ( folk) conceptions of race, the majority of genetic variation appears to be polymorphic 
• The results show that when individuals are sampled from around the globe, the pattern seen is not a matter of discrete cluster--but rather gradients in genetic variation appears polymorphic 
• The results show that when individuals are sampled from around the globe, the pattern seen is not a matter of discrete cluster -- but rather gradients in genetic variation ( gradual geographic variations in allele frequencies) that extend over the entire world. Therefore the is no reason to assume that major genetic discontinues exist between people's on different continents or "races" 
• this is to imply however that by utilizing 
• just on skin pigmentation-some 378 genetic loci have been identified that play some role in pigmentation differences in human populations. It's a 'polygenic' trait with multiple genes interacting in phenotypic express 
• There are no alleles that identify each and only members of races 
• Most variation comes in two forms: private polymorphisms defining sub-segments of groups... And ubiquitous polymorphisms defining 
• Genetically speaking, human variation appears clinical ( gradual, continous)... The relevant unit of analysis appears to be 
• Is ther a concordinance of traits? 
• Concordance- traits should travel as "packages" 
• genes for racialized phenotypes do not appear to be linked ( e.g. People of the Indian sub-continent, Khoi- San, Sami) 
• Every Combination is represented in some population ( e.g.Examples Above... Indigenouse Australian populations) 
• Racial exemplars ( ideals) are arbirarily ( socially?) selected, adn not packaged traits ( e.g. blumenbach) 
• Rather than being mixed or intermediary these are just fundemental or natural as racial paradigrams 
• so why aren't these the groupings
• does the venacular use and popular understanding of racial terms conflate two types of variables-- biological/anthropological on the one hand and social/ cultural on the other- social race